Publisher's Synopsis
From April 1809 through June 1813 the Duke of Wellington, commander of the Anglo-Portuguese army, created a well-disciplined military organization, defended Portugal from two French invasions, and successfully ended French control of Spain. During the campaign, Wellington led a diverse coalition of forces from Great Britain, Portugal, and Spain with varying degree of skill, discipline, and morale against a powerful French army that had successfully subdued many other parts of Europe. Wellington's nineteenth-century campaign provides tremendous insight into the operational level of war, employing military forces by integrating ends, ways, means, and risk that linked tactical actions to strategic outcomes including protecting Portugal, ending Bonapartist control in Spain, and ending Napoleon's regime in France.Wellington's decisive victory at Vitoria on 22 June 1813 that liberated Spain was the culmination of a campaign that took over four years to orchestrate. In 1809 he commanded an army that was outnumbered, inadequately supplied, and consisted of Portuguese regiments that were poorly-led, ill-equipped, and unsuitable for major combat operations. French forces, composed of veterans from many successful campaigns, controlled a majority of Spain and portions of Portugal. Within four months Wellington had won two victories and ended the immediate French threat to his army and to Portugal. In late fall 1809 he transitioned to the strategic defense to deter the next invasion, attrite the stronger French forces, and bide for time to improve major deficiencies in his army. When Napoleon withdrew forces from Spain to participate in the French invasion of Russia, Wellington quickly transitioned to the offense and secured the border fortresses between Spain and Portugal before moving into Spain and liberating the capital, Madrid. He was unable to achieve his desired end state by the end of the year and in 1813 he orchestrated a brilliant maneuver that outflanked the remaining French forces in Spain and led to the decisive battle at Vitoria. Wellington's campaign demonstrates the effective application of operational art to achieve desired results even against an aggressive and stronger enemy. His ability to correctly determine the proper course of action through visualizing and understanding the operational environment aided in his skillful handling of the army during those four years. Viewing this nineteenth century campaign through the modern elements of operational art provide valuable lessons for operational artists today.This compilation also includes a reproduction of the 2019 Worldwide Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community.The conditions in which Wellington won these victories makes his success even more impressive. Far from Great Britain, and reliant on the Royal Navy and local allies for logistical support, Wellington managed to build and maintain a field army that conducted meaningful operations. At the political level, the risks that Great Britain took to pursue this line of effort reveals how important Wellington's operations were in the strategic setting. Great Britain had been at war with Napoleon Bonaparte and his French empire continuously since 1803. Efforts by Britain to deploy expeditionary forces on the continent prior to 1809 produced lukewarm results and were not strategically decisive. Committing a sizable portion of the army to the Iberian Peninsula served several major objectives by the British government, but the risks were great. Wellington commanded the largest contingent of the British army in all the theaters of the war.
